Introduction
In our society today, testing is one of the primary means of determining competency. This setup has strongly molded a drive in people to outcompete and outperform each other resulting in the prevalent existence of test anxiety in educational settings. For example, the American College Health Association conducted a National College Health Assessment survey in 2015 and found that one in six college students in the United States have been treated and/or diagnosed with anxiety (Brown, 2016). These personal feelings of anxiety, isolation, and depression contribute to a general sense alienation in schools and universities. As such, although it is experienced individually, test anxiety is a mass issue that affects communities worldwide.
The City College of New York (CCNY) is no exception.
The preliminary research conducted on this topic draws from academic articles published since 2015 and available on “CCNY ONE SEARCH”, in conjunction with the A-Z Databases. While some studies argue that controlled levels of test anxiety can have positive effects, test anxiety in relation to higher education is often associated with negative learning outcomes (Christopher, 2017, p. 40). From a biological perspective, executive functioning profiles reveal how cognitive processes in college students are disrupted while they are experiencing test anxiety (O’Donnell, 2017, p. 447). These scientific findings were congruent with behavioral studies that measured the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance. The data and findings obtained can have positive policy applications in terms of mitigating the negative effects of test anxiety in the CCNY community.
A comprehensive approach to the question of test anxiety must account for both external and internal factors. In this respect, four separate studies examine treatments for test anxiety from a physiological standpoint which explores strengthening social connections and study counseling as a way (Zwettler, 2018; Allen 1971) , as well as from a physical standpoint which explores the use of aromatherapy in combating test anxiety (Dunnigan, 2014). Due to the fact that poor academic performance and test anxiety are significantly linked, it can have long-term effects on students’ socioeconomic standing (Zwettler, 2018, p. 2). Similarly, low exam scores and increased drop-out rates associated to test anxiety can have a negative effect on a university’s reputation (Zwettler, 2018, p. 1). The present literature review intends to understand the root of these problems so as to complement the services and resources offered to students by the CCNY Counseling Center.
Test Anxiety
Test anxiety can manifest itself both physically and emotionally. As a result, test anxiety often impairs an individual’s ability to perform during an exam. Due to the varying classifications of test anxiety used by the American Psychological Association and the International Classification of Diseases, the definition of test anxiety differs across scientific literature and therefore allows researchers to draw a wide range of conclusions (Zwettler, 2018, p. 2). Additionally, experiences with test anxiety differ from student to student. Nevertheless, there is a consensus on the symptoms associated to test anxiety. These include physical symptoms such as headaches, nausea, excessive sweating, shortness of breath, rapid heartbeat, lightheadedness, and feeling faint. Test anxiety can also cause panic attacks, which are the abrupt onset of intense fear or discomfort in which you may feel like you are unable to breathe or like you are having a heart attack. Emotional symptoms include feelings of stress, fear, helplessness, and disappointment, negative thoughts (rumination about past poor performances, consequences of failure, feeling inadequate, helpless), mind going blank, and racing thoughts. Lastly, cognitive symptoms include difficulty concentrating, thinking negatively, comparing yourself to others, and procrastinating (Test Anxiety, The Learning Center). Test anxiety can be experienced on a broad spectrum with many external factors coming into play that can have varying degrees of detrimental effects.
Methodology
In one of the studies, the method used in this study took a quantitative approach to the question of academic performance. As such, of the 534 participants in the study who self-reported scores for emotional intelligence, stress-coping mechanisms, and cognitive test anxiety, as well as GPA scores, only 141 participants had complete data for all variables of interest. Given the large reduction in sample size, the study compared participants with complete and incomplete data on the primary variables of interest. According to the authors of the study, the results did not significantly differ between these groups.
In Lowe’s study exploring cross-sectional differences between culture and gender, Lowe used five test anxiety scales and one facilitating anxiety scale which is collectively called the TAM-C (Cognitive Interference, Physiological Hyperarousal, Social Concerns, Task Irrelevant Behaviors, and Worry). The TAM-C was used instead of the popularized TAI which is over 35 years old. Unlike the TAI, the TAM-C addresses the multidimensional aspects of test anxiety which the TAI fails to do (Lowe, 2018, p. 112). As important as it is to have an up-to-date system, the TAM-C was formulated by Lowe herself, the sole author of the journal and facilitator of the study which makes the results all too dependent on her word. This does not necessarily negate her findings, but instead invites further inquiry to test her methods. A total sample of 1,344 students completed the TAM-C online and the results were analyzed and compared between culture and gender. The study was conducted on 624 Canadian undergraduate students (264 males, 360 females) from 69 universities and 720 U.S. undergraduate students (281 males, 439 females) from 441 universities (Lowe, 2018, p. 113-114). We must take note that in both the Canadian and U.S. sample size there are more females than males. If gender is a significant factor when measuring test anxiety in college students, having unequal sample size of sexes may skew the results of the study.
Zwettler’s study exploring how stronger social connections can affect levels of test anxiety, the researcher used 4 different tests (Social Identification: four-item scale by Doosje, Worry: German Test Anxiety Survey, Brief Symptom Checklist, and the Achievement Motivation Inventory) to determine the different relationships between test anxiety and social identification (Zwettler, Pages 3-4). The study used a total of 108 college students from various universities in Germany and found through various surveys that there is a relationship between test anxiety and social identification (Zwettler, 2018, p. 4). Although the location is outside of the United States it is still useful nonetheless at showing a connection between the two factors in question. The population sampling however is a bit concerning given that women make up 80.6% of the entire sample, clearly overpowering the men. The population sample was also screened by licensed professionals to ensure that all participants were diagnosed with anxiety and excluded cases of depression which leaves out the two extremes (undiagnosed anxiety and major depressive disorder) (Zwettler, 2018, p. 3). Students were used from different study programs which increases variety in the sample but also can bring to question the possibility of varying stress levels across different programs since some may be more test oriented than others. The selectivity of this study must be taken into account because it could possibly affect the results of the experiment if it were ever to be replicated (Zwettler, 2018, p. 5).
In addition, in Dunnigan’s aromatherapy study, a pre-test / post-test experimental design was utilized to gather data This study was a pre/post-test, experimental design, utilizing survey data to assess the effects of aromatherapy on test anxiety and performance in college students. Two treatment groups and a control group were surveyed in both pre-treatment and post-treatment situations to gather data regarding test anxiety and the subscales of emotionality and worry. Test scores of the participants were also obtained before and after treatment.’’m
Test Anxiety and its Effects on the Body and Mind
In the first Article/Study called ‘’Executive Functioning Profiles and Test Anxiety in College Students’’ by Patrick S. O’Donnell, there was an attempt to answer whether a specific executive functioning profile for individuals with test anxiety exists and whether deficits in working memory are associated with an earlier onset of test anxiety. This study was conducted by making two hundred eighty-four undergraduate students completed a survey on test anxiety and self-report measures of test anxiety and executive functioning. Executive functioning profiles were compared between test anxiety groups (below average, average, and above average) for differences in severity and pattern. The hypotheses’ are as follows: Hypothesis 1: Executive functioning profiles of students will vary in severity and pattern based on level of test anxiety. Hypothesis 2: Students who experience greater difficulty with working memory will have a higher level of test anxiety. Hypothesis 3: Students who report an earlier onset of test anxiety will experience greater difficulty with working memory (O’Donnell, 2017).
The first study here reviewed, The influence of emotional intelligence, cognitive test anxiety, and coping strategies on undergraduate academic performance, explores a variety of factors with the potential to exert “facilitative” and “debilitative” influence on undergraduate students’ academic performance. This study revealed that cognitive test anxiety, among other significant predictor of students’ long-term academic outcomes, was associated with decreases in four-year GPA.
The study argues that research in the domain of learning differences requires an examination of multiple variables simultaneously. Therefore, the study not only measures cognitive test anxiety, but also emotional intelligence and stress-coping mechanisms using three quantitative tests paired with institutional performance data. The paper defines emotional intelligence (EI) as an expansive construct consisting of mental skills, abilities, and capacities that process and draw from emotions. Test anxiety is defined as a pervasive form of academic anxiety that generally has negative effects on patterns of beliefs and behaviors common to testing situations. The final variable, stress-coping mechanisms, is defined as a set of behaviors that learners employ in response to their individual experience with external and internal stressors in academic settings. Prior research examining the relationship among these variables has traditionally focused, as the paper points out, on short-term academic performance and individual factors. In this regard, this paper is unique in that it examines the collective influence of these variables on predicting long-term academic performance.
As the authors of the study had hypothesized, 1st year cumulative GPA, emotional intelligence, cognitive test anxiety stress-coping mechanisms, were significantly correlated with graduating GPA. However, contrary to the researchers’ prediction, the study revealed cognitive test anxiety was not meaningfully associated with either emotional intelligence or stress-coping strategies. According to the authors of the study, these findings contradict previous findings that held that emotional intelligence provides students with the ability to successfully manage the emotional challenges associated with cognitive test anxiety.
There are many factors that influence test anxiety amongst college students which calls for a more multidimensional approach of measurement then what was done in the past. From previous studies, Lowe found that cultural and gender differences are two factors that affect the measurement of test anxiety. In order to test cultural differences in test anxiety measurement, Canadian students and students from the United States took part in the study which included both males and females for the gender comparison as well. Although very similar culturally, differences are present between the two countries and Lowe hypothesized that cultural and gender differences do in fact affect test anxiety measurements. Instead of using multiple scales and inventories used in past studies, Lowe decided to take a more modernized approach and created the TAM-C (Lowe, 2018, p. 113).
Managing Test Anxiety:
Since the idea of performing well on an exam equating to proficiency in that subject is a social construct, it is only fitting to take into account the social aspect of test-taking which occurs most frequently before and after the examination. Zwettler believes relationships with faculty, fellow peers, and academic programs (majors) are external factors that may play a role in test anxiety. After analyzing many studies, Zwettler hypothesizes that a higher level of social identification will lead to less worrying about exam performance, less depressive symptoms, lower insecurity in social contacts, and higher achievement motivation (Zwettler, 2018, p. 3). Zwettler’s study explores social identification and social interactions and its effects on test anxiety within different social groups in a university setting using a series of surveys taken by college students.
In the second article/study entitled ‘’Tackling Test Anxiety: A Group for College Students’’ by Diana E. Damer and Lauren T. Melendres A description of a 4-week group intervention designed to address the heterogeneous nature of test anxiety is presented. Cognitive-behavioral anxiety management techniques, along with study and test-taking skills, are taught in the context of a supportive group environment such that students learn skills to manage their test anxiety while realizing that they are not alone in their struggles. Research has repeatedly demonstrated that test anxiety is negatively associated with overall test performance, academic achievement, and intellectual aptitude tests. In addition to causing profound impairment in the academic realm, test anxiety is often detrimental to the students’ mental and physical health, including being a factor in issues with depression, hopelessness, and decreased immune responses that result in higher rates of illness approaches that focus on skills such as test-taking strategies rather than anxiety reduction have been shown to be more effective in enhancing academic performance. The group intervention described in the current article was designed accordingly and capitalized on the finding that brief treatment appears to be more effective than longer term treatment. Six to ten group members participate in the TTA group. Sessions run for four weeks and are 1.25hr in duration. The group is typically co-led by a licensed staff member and a trainee (social work intern, psychology intern, or psychology practicum student) but may be led by a licensed staff member alone. Group leaders open each of the four sessions with a review of the previous week’s topics and a check-in, in which students are encouraged to share successes or challenges they have encountered over the last week or issues about which they would like the group’s input. Each group is then composed of psychoeducation and skill building regarding test anxiety. At the end of each group, there is a brief check-out in which group members identify what they will take away with them from group that day, especially the concepts they plan to implement during the next week. Group members are provided with folders to keep handouts and are asked to bring them to group each week. Throughout each session, group leaders facilitate support and cohesion in various ways. Group members are encouraged to share their own experiences and provide feedback to their fellow group members. The first session is a warm welcome and ask group members to introduce themselves and share their year in school, major, and something interesting about themselves. Group members then break into dyads and discuss general questions related to test anxiety. The second session of the test anxiety group begins with group members sharing their cognitive restructuring homework assignments. If a group member had difficulty generating a rational response for a test-anxious thought, other group members are encouraged to help by offering suggestions for alternative thoughts. In the third session group members are lead through a variety of relaxation exercises that they can employ to cope with their anxiety before, during, and after the exam. The final session begins with a discussion regarding the importance of establishing an individualized test day routine that includes sleeping and eating habits prior to the exam, transportation considerations, and time-management leading up to and during the exam. The group leaders also briefly discuss basic test taking strategies (i.e., pacing oneself, generating an answer before looking at the answer choices, etc.) and highlight the importance of managing the test environment. ( Damer & Melendres, 2011).
The study aims to determine effective ways to lessen and/or eradicate test anxiety to improve test performance in college students. The study found that a combination method of desensitization and group counseling effectively lessens test anxiety improving test performance on college students.
Results
Executive functioning profiles were found to significantly vary in severity based on level of test anxiety. The severity of the profile for participants in the above average test anxiety group exceeded that of participants in the average group and, in turn, the below average test anxiety group. The below average, average, and above average test anxiety groups demonstrated distinct mean levels of functioning across all but one of the executive function scales, with the most elevated executive functioning profile corresponding to the above average test anxiety group. Moreover, Working memory was found to be significantly correlated with test anxiety, supporting previous research in this area. Limitations of the current study were related to the participant sample and methodology. Participants chose to participate in this study with the knowledge that it included content related to test anxiety. This self-selection may have contributed to the high percentage of participants who reported experiencing test anxiety at some point during their education. Previous research has indicated up to 40% of individuals experience test anxiety.
After the analysis of the TAM-C, it was shown that U.S. students had higher levels of cognitive interference which is often associated with poorer test performance whereas Canadian students had higher levels of physiological hyperarousal. These findings supported Lowe’s hypothesis that there are differences between test anxiety measurement in different cultures. In fact, it is likely that different cultures can experience anxiety differently (Lowe, 2018, p. 116). With a higher cognitive interference, test anxiety may cause U.S. students perform worse than Canadian students with test anxiety who have higher levels of hyperarousal. Differences in test anxiety and gender were also found which supports Lowe’s hypothesis. Females from both the Canadian and the U.S. group were found to have higher levels of test anxiety than males (Lowe, 2018, p. 117). Further research must be conducted comparing various cultures and larger sample sizes over time to determine whether or not the TAM-C is a useful tool in measuring multidimensional test anxiety.
The statistical analysis of the data from the four surveys supported the original hypothesis that a higher level of social identification will lead to less depressive symptoms, lower insecurity in social contacts, and higher achievement motivation (all during examination). Contrary to the hypothesis, it was found that a higher level of social identification would NOT lead to less worrying about exam performance which was interpreted in the study to represent social pressures and comparisons among peers of their performance (Zwettler, 2018, p. 5). Overall, although there were some sampling issues, I do not completely question the validity of the study since 45 studies were referenced in conjunction with the research conducted and limitations were stated in a clear and concise manner.
The results indicated that a combination of desensitization and study counseling was more effective in reducing physiologically measured anxiety and improving academic and examination performance than cither technique alone. ‘’Desensitization and study counseling were not reliably different from each other, nor reliably more effective than the placebo procedure in improving academic performance.’’
There is an association between aromatherapy on test anxiety and test scores.
‘’Seventy-five volunteers were assigned randomly to one of two therapists, who provided training in («) desensitization alone, (b) study counseling alone, (c) a combination of study counseling and desensitization, and (d) a placebo procedure. The Ss were also assigned to two control groups. The experimental design was a repeated-measures paradigm involving pre- and post treatment assessment of self-report, physiological, and academic performance variables. Data were collected during an interview and immediately before the midterm and final examinations’’ The study illustrates the important effects of test anxiety on test performance in students, and has indicated that aromatherapy does not have any effect on test anxiety. Although, further research between these factors is recommended.
Conclusion
After analyzing all of the studies in depth, it came to our attention that the sample sizes across the board all failed to successfully represent the population in question. For example, both Zwettler and Lowe fail to have an equal number of women and men in their study. If Lowe is correct and gender is a significant factor when measuring test anxiety in college students, having unequal sample size of sexes may skew the results of the study. Also, Lowe’s study of cross-sectional differences between test anxiety is a fascinating subtopic, but at the same time it fails to take into account immigrants from varying cultures who may reside in the country(s) being studied. It’s simply shocking to find that both studies lacked a control group. The samples themselves varied greatly depending on the study which makes it difficult to apply these findings to the general public. For instance, Zwettler screened for diagnosed anxiety, whereas Lowe’s study was open to all without any separation between diagnosed and undiagnosed anxiety. Both studies used different measurements of testing test anxiety, all from different dates which can be a concern if the assessments are outdated and are no longer useful.
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